TerritorioPc


1960s

The '''1960s''' in its most obvious sense refers to the decade between 1960 and 1969, but the expression has taken on a wider meaning over the past twenty years. ''The Sixties'' has come to refer to the complex of inter-related cultural and political events which occurred in approximately that period, in western countries, particularly United Kingdom|Britain, France, the United States and Germany|West Germany. Social upheaval was not limited to just these nations, reaching large scale in nations such as Japan, Mexico and Canada as well. The term is used both nostalgically by those who participated in those events, and pejoratively by those who regard the time as a period whose harmful effects are still being felt today. The decade was also labelled the ''Swinging Sixties'' because of the libertine attitudes that emerged during the decade. Popular memory has conflated into the Sixties some events which did not actually occur during the period. For example, although some of the most dramatic events of the American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American civil rights movement occurred in the early 1960s, the movement had already began in earnest during the 1950s. On the other hand, the rise of feminism and gay rights began only in the very late 1960s and did not fully flower until the 1970s|Seventies. However, the "Sixties" has become synonymous with all the new, exciting, radical, subversive and/or dangerous (according to one's viewpoint) events and trends of the period.

Events and trends

Many of the trends of the 1960s were due to the demographic changes brought about by the post-WW2 baby boom|baby boom generation, the height of the Cold War, and the dissolution of European colonial empires. The rise in social revolution, civil rights movements, human rights movement, anti-War movements, and the Counterculture movement are only some of the characteristics that defined the 1960s. Many experts attribute the 1960s "counter-culture revolution" as being the result of the major social and political factors that rose in the 1950s like brinksmanship, continued fighting in the 3rd world, and a return to pre-WWII lifestyle. The new generation was determined to reject a pre-WWII conformist lifestyle with men in suits and women in the kitchen. While many believed it to be just a "Western" phenomenon, the '60s revolution spread far beyond the borders of America and Western Europe. In South America, revolutions were at a height, in the Eastern Bloc, movements were made inspired by the Hungarian Revolution to reject Soviet domination, and in the Middle East attempted to resist Soviet and American domination (see Non-Aligned Movement). Overall, the '60s affected almost the entire globe. It was during this time that protectionist, command, and mixed economies reached their peak...

Technology

on the Moon]] ]]
  • Soviet Union|USSR puts first man (Yuri Gagarin) and first woman (Valentina Tereshkova) in outer space
  • The United States puts man on Earth's Moon (see Apollo 11|Apollo 11)
  • Geosynchronous satellites revolutionize global communications
  • Start of the development of algorithmic information theory
  • The ARPAnet, precursor of the Internet, is founded in 1969 as a United States Department of Defense project. The numbered series of Request For Comments (RFC) documents begins in order to document the standards and practices of this network, and continues to this day
  • ''Direct Use of the Sun's Energy'' by pioneer solar-energy scientist Farrington Daniels is published (1964)
  • Compact audio cassette introduced; begins to displace reel-to-reel audio tape recording for home users

    Science

  • Discovery of plate tectonics revolutionizes understanding of continental drift
  • Jacques Monod and Francois Jacob discover the lac operon
  • Rise of the science of ecology in the awareness of the intelligentsia

    War, peace and politics

    : "I Have a Dream"]] ]]
  • Cultural Revolution in mainland China causes political and economic chaos.
  • Nigerian Civil War begins.
  • 6-Day War between Israel|Israelis and Arab|Arabs in 1967.
  • Beginning of The Troubles in Northern Ireland
  • Berlin Wall built in 1961.
  • Bay of Pigs Invasion in 1961, the United States sponsored an attempt to overthrow Cuba's socialist government and Fidel Castro.
  • Civil rights movement in the United States; end of official racial segregation|segregation and disenfranchisement of African-American|African-Americans; racial tensions continue with large race riots in Watts riots|Watts (Los Angeles) in 1966, Detroit in 1967, and Hough and Glenville in Cleveland.
  • Sino-Indian War in late 1962. China attacks India and gains some land in Kashmir.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
  • Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir ends in a stalemate.
  • The Vietnam War and protests, leading to Kent State University shootings in May, 1970.
  • Prague spring|Suppression of uprising in Czechoslovakia.
  • The Stonewall Riots in New York City give birth to the gay rights movement, June 1969.
  • United Nations imposes sanctions against South Africa to protest the policy of Apartheid.
  • Students protesting perceived problems with the status-quo are suppressed with violence by police and soldiers in United States|USA, France, Mexico, Czechoslovakia. ''See'' New Left.
  • The Quiet Revolution (''Révolution tranquille'') begins in Quebec - precipitous decline of the Roman Catholic church, liberalism, social-democratic programs, and the birth of modern Quebec nationalism.
  • The rise of radical feminism.

    Economics

  • Many countries in The West experience high economic growth (4 to 8% per year)

    Culture

  • Rock and roll develops, diversifies, and becomes very hip. The Beatles eclipse Elvis Presley and become the most popular musical artists in the world. "Topical" artists like Bob Dylan and Joan Baez worked social commentary into their music.
  • '''' hits movie theaters
  • The long running BBC family science fiction show ''Doctor Who'' begins in 1963
  • ''Star Trek'' makes its debut in 1966
  • ''James Bond'' movies begin. Dr. No is the first of the series in 1962, starring Sean Connery as Bond
  • Hippie|Hippies, drug culture & rock and roll converge at the Woodstock festival, 1969
  • In the West, the growing popularity of religions other than Christianity (for example, as discussed in the writings of Alan Watts), and of atheism; Time Magazine asks: "Is God Dead?" ''See'' Fourth Great Awakening, Consciousness Revolution
  • Memorable expositions, or "World's Fairs," are held in Seattle, Washington|Seattle (1962), New York (1964/1965), Montreal (1967) and San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio (1968)
  • Progressive rock emerges
  • The fine arts begins to move away from exclusively consisting of painting, drawing, and sculpture and begins to incorporate elements from popular culture (Pop art) and begins to favour the ideas behind a work, rather than the work itself (Conceptual art)

    Others

    - the Boston City Hall built in 1969]]
  • Post-Colonialism; many new or previously colonized countries achieve independence in Africa, Asia
  • U.S. president John F. Kennedy assassinated in 1963; his brother Robert F. Kennedy assassinated in 1968
  • U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. assassinated on April 4, 1968
  • Charles Manson gave up his ambitions of becoming a popular song writer to become a cult leader and mass murderer, 1969
  • Nation of Islam leader Malcolm X assassinated on February 21, 1965
  • U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society program
  • In the United States, increase in crime; riots in Watts Riot|Los Angeles in 1965 and Chicago, Illinois at the 1968 Democratic National Convention
  • Rise of the post-WW2 baby boom|baby boom generation to adulthood
  • First widespread availability of practical birth control pill for women; ''See'' sexual revolution
  • Sweden switches from driving on the left to the right, in order to harmonise with neighbouring countries. See ''Rules of the road''

    Big changes during the Sixties

    In the United States

    The movement for civil and political rights for African Americans (in the early '60s usually called Negroes and in the later '60s Blacks), initially a non-violent movement led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and other Mohandas Gandhi|Gandhian figures but later producing radical offshoots such as the Black Power movement and competing with the Black Panther Party and the Black Muslims for primacy in the African-American community. The beginning of what was generally seen as a new political era with the election of President John F. Kennedy in 1960, and its ending in tragedy and disillusionment with Kennedy's assassination in 1963, the assassinations of King and Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, and the collapse of Lyndon Johnson's presidency. The rise of a mass movement in opposition to the Vietnam War, culminating in the massive Moratorium protests in 1969, and also the movement of resistance to conscription (“the Draft”) for the war. The antiwar movement was initially based on the older 1950s "Peace movement" controlled by the Communist Party USA, but by the mid '60s it outgrew this and became a broad-based mass movement centred on the universities and churches. Stimulated by this movement, but growing beyond it, the large numbers of student-age youth, beginning with the Free University of California, Berkeley]] in 1964, peaking in the riots at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, Illinois and reaching a climax with the shootings at Kent State University in 1970. The rapid rise of a "New Left," employing the rhetoric of Marxism but having little organizational connection with older Marxist organizations such the Communist Party USA|Communist Party, and even less connection with the supposed focus of Marxist politics, the organized labor movement, and consisting of ephemeral campus-based Trotskyism|Trotskyist, Maoism|Maoist and anarchism|anarchist groups, some of which by the end of the 1960s had turned to terrorism. The overlapping, but somewhat different, movement of youth cultural radicalism manifested by the hippies and the counter-culture, whose emblematic moments were the Summer of Love in San Francisco in 1967 and the Woodstock festival|Woodstock Festival in 1969. The rapid spread, associated with this movement, of the recreational use of cannabis and other drugs, particularly new synthetic psychedelic drugs such as LSD. The breakdown among young people of conventional sexual morality and the flourishing of the sexual revolution. Initially geared mostly to heterosexual male gratification, it soon gave rise to contrary trends, Women's Liberation and Gay Liberation. The rise of an alternative culture among affluent youth, creating a huge market for Rock and roll|rock and blues music produced by drug-culture influenced bands such as The Beatles, Jefferson Airplane and The Doors, and also for radical music in the folk music|folk tradition pioneered by Bob Dylan.

    In other Western countries

    The peak of the student and New Left protests in 1968 coincided with political upheavals in a number of other countries. Although these events often sprang from completely different causes, they were influenced by reports and images of what was happening in the United States and France. Students in Mexico City, for example, protested against the corrupt regime of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz: in the resulting Tlatelolco massacre hundreds were killed. The influence of American culture and politics in Western Europe, Japan and Australia was already so great by the early 1960s that most of the trends described above soon spawned counterparts in most Western countries. University students rioted in London, Paris, Berlin and Rome, huge crowds protested against the Vietnam War in Australia and New Zealand (both of which had committed troops to the war), and politicians such as Harold Wilson and Pierre Trudeau modelled themselves on John F. Kennedy. An important difference between the United States and Western Europe, however, was the existence of a mass socialist and/or Communist movement in most European countries (particularly France and Italy), with which the student-based new left was able to forge a connection. The most spectacular manifestation of this was the May 1968|May 1968 student revolt in Paris, which linked up with a general strike called by the Communist-controlled trade unions and for a few days seemed capable of overthrowing the government of Charles de Gaulle.

    In non-Western countries

    In Eastern Europe, students also drew inspiration from the protests in the west. In Poland and Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia they protested against restrictions on free speech by Communist regimes. In Czechoslovakia, 1968 was the year of Alexander Dubček’s Prague Spring, a source of inspiration to many Western leftists who admired Dubček's "socialism with a human face." The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August ended these hopes, and also fatally damaged the chances of the orthodox Communist Parties drawing many recruits from the student protest movement. In the People's Republic of China the mid 1960s were also a time of massive upheaval, and the Red Guards (China)|Red Guard rampages of Mao Zedong's Cultural Revolution had some superficial resemblances to the student protests in the West. The Maoist groups that briefly flourished in the West in this period saw in Chinese Communism a more revolutionary, less bureaucratic model of socialism. Most of them were rapidly disillusioned when Mao welcomed Richard Nixon to China in 1972. People in China, however, saw the Nixon visit to China 1972|Nixon visit as a victory in that they believed the United States would concede that Mao Zedong thought was superior to capitalism (this was the Party stance on the visit in late 1971 and early 1972). The Cuban revolutionary Che Guevara|Ernesto "Che" Guevara also became an iconic figure for the student left, although he was in fact an orthodox Communist.

    People

    World leaders

    launched the Cultural Revolution]]
  • Prime Minister Robert Menzies (Australia)
  • Prime Minister Harold Holt (Australia)
  • Prime Minister John McEwen (Australia)
  • Prime Minister John Diefenbaker (Canada)
  • Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson (Canada)
  • Prime Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau (Canada)
  • Chairman Mao Zedong (People's Republic of China)
  • President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China on Taiwan)
  • President Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
  • President Charles de Gaulle (France)
  • Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
  • Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri (India)
  • Prime Minister Indira Gandhi (India)
  • Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion (Israel)
  • Prime Minister Levi Eshkol (Israel)
  • Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
  • Pope John XXIII
  • Pope Paul VI
  • Prime Minister Basil Brooke (Northern Ireland)
  • Prime Minister Terence O'Neill (Northern Ireland)
  • Prime Minister James Chichester-Clark (Northern Ireland)
  • Governor Luis A. Ferré (Puerto Rico|Commonwealth of Puerto Rico)
  • Taoiseach Sean Lemass (Republic of Ireland)
  • Taoiseach Jack Lynch (Republic of Ireland)
  • Nikita Khrushchev (Soviet Union)
  • Leonid Brezhnev (Soviet Union)
  • Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II (United Kingdom)
  • Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (United Kingdom)
  • Prime Minister Harold Wilson (United Kingdom)
  • President Dwight D. Eisenhower (United States)
  • President John F. Kennedy (United States)
  • President Lyndon Johnson (United States)
  • President Richard Nixon (United States)
  • Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (West Germany)
  • Chancellor Ludwig Erhard (West Germany)
  • Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger (West Germany)
  • President for Life Josip Broz Tito (Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia)

    Writers and intellectuals

  • Isaac Asimov
  • J. G. Ballard
  • Truman Capote
  • Andy Capp
  • Rachel Carson
  • Noam Chomsky
  • Judith Christ
  • Philip K. Dick
  • Louise Fitzhugh
  • Milton Friedman
  • Allen Ginsberg
  • Seamus Heaney
  • Robert A. Heinlein
  • Frank Herbert
  • Ken Kesey
  • Timothy Leary
  • Norman Mailer
  • Marshall McLuhan
  • Jules Pfeiffer
  • Carl Sagan
  • Charles Schulz
  • Dr. Seuss
  • John Steinbeck
  • Hunter S. Thompson
  • Joseph Heller
  • Gore Vidal
  • Kurt Vonnegut
  • Alan Watts
  • Tom Wolfe

    Sports figures

  • Lance Alworth (American football player)
  • Richie Benaud (Australian cricket captain)
  • George Best (Northern Irish football player)
  • Nino Benvenuti (Italian boxing|boxer)
  • Jim Brown (American football player)
  • Wilt Chamberlain (United States|American basketball player)
  • Bobby Charlton (English football player)
  • Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jim Clark (Scottish motor racing|racing driver)
  • Cassius Clay later known as Muhammad Ali (American boxing|boxer)
  • Roberto Clemente (Puerto Rican baseball player)
  • Eusebio (Portuguese football player)
  • Peggy Fleming (American figure skater)
  • Bob Gibson (American baseball player)
  • Cookie Gilchrist (American football player)
  • Bobby Hull (Canadian ice hockey|hockey player)
  • Gordie Howe (Canadian hockey player)
  • Franz Klammer (Austrian skiing|skier)
  • David Kopay (American football player)
  • Sandy Koufax (American baseball player)
  • Denis Law (Scotland footballer)
  • Vince Lombardi (American football coach)
  • Willie Mays (American baseball player)
  • Stan Mikita (Slovak-Canadian hockey player)
  • Bobby Moore (English football player)
  • Joe Namath (American football player)
  • Jack Nicklaus (American golfer)
  • Arnold Palmer (American golfer)
  • Gary Player (South African golfer)
  • Bobby Orr (Canadian ice hockey player)
  • Pelé (Brazilian football player)
  • Richard Petty (American NASCAR racing driver)
  • Frank Robinson (American baseball player)
  • Bill Shankly (Liverpool FC football manager)
  • Gary Sobers (Barbados & West Indies cricket captain and all-rounder)
  • Alfredo di Stefano (Argentinian/Spanish football player)
  • Fred Trueman (Yorkshire & England cricketer)

    Entertainers

  • Bud Abbott
  • Steve Allen
  • Ursula Andress
  • Julie Andrews
  • Fred Astaire
  • John Astin
  • Frankie Avalon and Annette Funicello
  • Joan Baez
  • Lucille Ball
  • Brigitte Bardot
  • Billy Barty
  • The Beach Boys
  • The Beatles
  • Tony Bennett
  • Jack Benny
  • Milton Berle
  • Joey Bishop
  • Ray Bolger
  • Ernest Borgnine
  • Charles Bronson
  • Mel Brooks and Carl Reiner
  • Johnny Brown
  • Carol Burnett
  • George Burns
  • The Byrds
  • Sid Caesar
  • Godfrey Cambridge
  • Diane Cannon
  • Cantinflas
  • Capucine
  • Vicki Carr
  • Diahann Carrol
  • Johnny Carson
  • Violet Carson
  • Art Carney
  • Jack Cassidy
  • Ted Cassidy
  • Carol Channing
  • Roy Clark
  • Imogene Coca
  • Nat King Cole
  • Sean Connery
  • Tim Conway
  • Bill Cosby
  • Joan Crawford
  • Bing Crosby
  • Gary Crosby
  • Phillip Crosby
  • Tony Curtis
  • Dalida
  • Bette Davis
  • Sammy Davis, Jr.
  • Doris Day
  • John Derrick
  • Neil Diamond
  • Angie Dickenson
  • Walt Disney
  • The Doors
  • Donovan
  • Mamie Van Doren
  • Kirk Douglas
  • Patty Duke
  • Jimmy Durante
  • Dick Van Dyke
  • Bob Dylan
  • Clint Eastwood
  • Barbara Eden
  • Linda Evans
  • Robert Evans
  • Henry Fonda
  • Jane Fonda
  • Peter Fonda
  • Eileen Fulton
  • Judy Garland
  • James Garner
  • Gerry & the Pacemakers
  • Jack Gilford
  • Jackie Gleason
  • Cary Grant
  • Kathryn Grant aka '''Kathryn Crosby'''
  • Grateful Dead
  • Dick Gregory
  • Andy Griffith
  • Merv Griffin
  • Fred Gwynne
  • Buddy Hackett
  • Joey Heatherton
  • Jimi Hendrix
  • Audrey Hepburn
  • Katharine Hepburn
  • Charlton Heston
  • Alfred Hitchcock
  • Dustin Hoffman
  • Bob Hope
  • Dennis Hopper
  • Ron Howard
  • Rock Hudson
  • The Jackson 5
  • Chad and Jeremy
  • Antonio Carlos Jobim
  • Carolyn Jones
  • Shirley Jones
  • Tom Jones
  • Janis Joplin
  • Boris Karloff
  • Danny Kaye
  • Buster Keaton
  • Gene Kelly
  • Don Knotts
  • Jimmy Komac
  • Harvey Korman
  • Nancy Kwan
  • Bert Lahr
  • Peter Lawford
  • Norman Lear
  • Bruce Lee
  • Janet Leigh
  • Jack Lemmon
  • Jerry Lewis
  • Art Linkletter
  • Gina Lollobrigida
  • Sophia Loren
  • Peter Lorre
  • Paul Lynde
  • Shirley Maclaine
  • Ann Margret
  • Dean Martin
  • Groucho Marx
  • James Mason
  • David McCallum
  • Country Joe McDonald
  • Steve McQueen
  • Barry Melton
  • The Monkees
  • Mary Tyler Moore
  • Rita Moreno
  • Pat Morita
  • Howard Morris
  • Zero Mostel
  • Paul Newman
  • Jack Nicholson
  • David Niven
  • Roy Orbison
  • Gregory Peck
  • Peter & Gordon
  • Oscar Peterson
  • Patricia Phoenix
  • Pink Floyd
  • Sidney Poitier
  • Vincent Price
  • Richard Pryor
  • Elvis Presley
  • Otis Redding
  • Robert Redford
  • Steve Reeves
  • Debbie Reynolds
  • Don Rickles
  • Chita Rivera
  • The Rolling Stones
  • Mickey Rooney
  • Dan Rowan and Dick Martin
  • Peter Sellers
  • Rod Serling
  • David Seville
  • Dick Shawn
  • Dinah Shore
  • Simon & Garfunkel
  • Frank Sinatra
  • Frank Sinatra, Jr.
  • Nancy Sinatra
  • Red Skelton
  • The Smothers Brothers
  • Elke Sommer
  • Sonny and Cher
  • Jill St. John
  • Connie Stevens
  • Inger Stevens
  • Stella Stevens
  • James Stewart
  • Ed Sullivan
  • The Supremes
  • Russ Tamblyn
  • Jacques Tati
  • Elizabeth Taylor
  • Danny Thomas
  • Marlo Thomas
  • The Three Stooges
  • Spencer Tracy
  • Robert Wagner
  • William Wagoner
  • Burt Ward
  • John Wayne
  • Tuesday Weld
  • Raquel Welch
  • Orson Welles
  • Adam West
  • The Who
  • Gene Wilder
  • Andy Williams
  • Flip Wilson
  • Natalie Wood
  • Stevie Wonder
  • Ed Wynn
  • Keenan Wynn
  • Led Zeppelin
  • Bradley Football
  • Cass Elliot -- The Mamas & the Papas
  • Carl Stuart Hamblen

    See also

  • List of rock and roll albums in the 1960s

    Further Viewing

    To see examples of the idealism of the Sixties, view the ''Woodstock Movie''.

    External links

  • http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rjackson/webbibl.html



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