Josephus

Life

Josephus fought in the First Jewish-Roman War of 66-73, acting as a military leader in Galilee. However, in circumstances that are somewhat unclear (see also Josephus problem), Josephus surrendered to the Roman forces invading Galilee in July, 67; and he became a prisoner and provided the Romans with intelligence on the ongoing revolt. The Roman forces were led by Flavius Vespasian and his son Titus (both subsequently Roman emperors). In 69 Josephus was released in a ceremony that, some modern scholars have argued, may have been intended to symbolise a reinstatement of his previous state as a free man (cf. ''War'' IV.622-629). In around 70 Josephus divorced his first wife and married a Jewish woman of Alexandria, Egypt. By this marriage he had two children, a son named Flavius Hyrcanus and a second child about whom nothing is known. In 71 he arrived in Rome in the entourage of Titus, becoming a Roman citizen and Flavian client. Although he only ever calls himself "Josephus", he appears to have taken the Roman nomen Flavius and praenomen Titus; for not only was it standard for a new citizen to take the first two names of his patron, but the nomen Flavius is attested for Josephus in a text by the third century Church theologian Origen (''Comm. Matt.'' 10.17). In addition to Roman citizenship he was granted accommodation in Vespasian’s former home, land in conquered Judea, and a decent, if not extravagant, pension (''Life'' 423: ''chrēmata'', literally: anything useful, wealth, monies, but not necessarily "retirement pension"). It was while in Rome, and under Flavian patronage, that Josephus wrote all of his known works. Around 75 he divorced his second wife and married a third, by whom he had two sons, Flavius Justus and Simonides Agrippa, Josephus's life is beset with ambiguity. For his critics, he never satisfactorily explained his actions during the Jewish war — why he failed to commit suicide in Galilee in 67 with some of his compatriots, and why, after his capture, he cooperated with the Roman invaders. Hence, many have viewed Josephus as a traitor and informer and questioned his credibility as a historian — dismissing his works as Roman propaganda or as a personal apologetics|apologetic, aimed at rehabilitating his reputation in history. Nevertheless, he was unquestionably an important apologist in the Roman world for the Jewish people and culture, particularly at a time of conflict and tension. He always remained, in his own eyes, a loyal and law-observant Jew. He went out of his way both to commend Judaism to educated gentiles, and to insist on its compatibility with cultured Graeco-Roman thought. He constantly contended for the antiquity of Jewish culture, presenting its people as civilised, devout and philosophical.

Significance to scholarship

The works of Josephus provide crucial information about the First Jewish-Roman War. They are also important literary source for understanding the context of the Dead Sea Scrolls and post-Second Temple Judaism. Josephus offers information about individuals, groups, customs and geographical places. He makes references to the Sadducees, Jewish High Priests of the time, Pharisees and Essenes, the Herodian Temple, Quirinius's census, and to such figures as Pontius Pilate, Herod the Great, Agrippa I and Agrippa II|II, John the Baptist, James the Just|James (the brother of Jesus) and a brief and highly disputed Josephus on Jesus|reference to Jesus himself. Along with Philo of Alexandria, he is an important source for studies of immediate post-Temple Judaism and early Christianity. '''See also''' the "''Josephus on Jesus|Testimonium Flavianum''"

Works

''The Jewish War''

His first work in Rome was an account of the Jewish war addressed to certain "upper barbarians" – usually thought to be the Jewish community in Mesopotamia – in his "paternal tongue" (''War'' I.3), arguably the Western Aramaic language|Aramaic language. He then wrote a seven-volume account in Greek language|Greek known to us as the ''Jewish War (Bellum Iudaicum)''. It starts with the period of the Maccabees and concludes with accounts of the fall of Jerusalem, the Roman victory celebrations in Rome, the mopping-up operations, Roman military operations elsewhere in the Empire and the uprising in Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene. Together with the account in his ''Life'' of some of the same events it also provides the reader with an overview of Josephus’s own part in the events since his return to Jerusalem from a brief visit to Rome in the early 60s (''Life'' 13-17). Rome cannot have been an easy place for a Jew in the wake of the suppression of the Jewish revolt. Josephus would have witnessed the marches of Titus’s triumphant legions leading their Jewish captives, and experienced the popular presentation of the Jews as a bellicose and misanthropic people. It was against this background that Josephus wrote his ''War'', and although often dismissed as pro-Roman propaganda (perhaps hardly surprising given where his patronage was coming from) he claims to be writing to counter anti-Judean accounts. He disputes the claim that the Jews serve a defeated god and are naturally hostile to Roman civilization. Rather, he blames the Jewish War on unrepresentative and over-zealous fanatics among the Jews, who led the masses away from their natural aristocratic leaders (like him), with disastrous results. He also blames some of the governors of Judea, but these he presents as atypical Romans: corrupt and incompetent administrators. Thus, according to Josephus, the traditional Jew was, should be, and can be, a loyal and peace-loving citizen. Jews can, and historically have, accepted Rome’s hegemony precisely because of their faith that God himself gives empires their power.

''Jewish Antiquities''

Josephus is next encountered in his twenty-one volume ''Jewish Antiquities|Antiquities of the Jews'', completed in the last year of Flavius Domitian (93). He claims that interested persons have pressed him to give a fuller account of the Jewish culture and constitution. Here, in expounding Jewish history, law and custom, he is entering into many philosophical debates current in Rome at that time. Again he offers an ''apologia'' for the antiquity and universal significance of the Jewish people. Beginning with the story of Creation (theology)|Creation he outlines Jewish history. Abraham taught science to the Ancient Egypt|Egyptians, who in turn taught the Greeks. Moses set up a senatorial priestly aristocracy, which like that of Rome resisted monarchy. The great figures of the Bible|biblical stories are presented as ideal philosopher leaders. There is again an autobiographical appendix defending Josephus's own conduct at the end of the war when he cooperated with the Roman forces.

''Against Apion''

Josephus' ''Against Apion'' is a final two-volume defence of Judaism as classical antiquity|classical religion and philosophy, stressing its antiquity against what Josephus claimed was the relatively more recent traditions of the Greeks. Some anti-Judean allegations by the Greek writer Apion, and myths accredited to Manetho are also exposed.

List of works

(ca. 75 CE/AD) ''War of the Jews'', or ''Jewish War'', or ''Jewish Wars'', or ''History of the Jewish War'' (commonly abbreviated ''JW'', ''BJ'' or ''War'')

(ca. 75) ''Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades''

(ca. 94) ''Antiquities of the Jews'', or ''Jewish Antiquities'', or ''Antiquities of the Jews/Jewish Archeology'' (frequently abbreviated ''AJ'', ''AotJ'' or ''Ant.'' or ''Antiq.'')

(ca. 97) ''Against Apion|Flavius Josephus Against Apion'', or ''Against Apion'', or ''Contra Apionem'', or ''Against Apion|Against the Greeks, on the antiquity of the Jewish people'' (usually abbreviated ''CA'')

(ca. 99) ''The Life of Flavius Josephus'', or ''The Life of Flavius Josephus|Autobiography of Flavius Josephus'' (abbreviated ''Life'' or ''Vita'')

External links

http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/JOSEPHUS.HTM

http://www.adath-shalom.ca/josep-ds.htm

http://josephus.yorku.ca/