Kazakhstan

History

''Main article: History of Kazakhstan'' Humans have inhabited what is now known as Kazakhstan since the earliest Stone Age, generally pursuing the nomadic movement pastoralism for which the region's climate and terrain are best suited. From the 4th century through the beginning of the 13th century, the territory of Kazakhstan was ruled by a series of nomadic nations. Following the Mongolian invasion in the early 13th century, administrative districts were established under the Mongol Empire, which eventually became the territories of the Kazakh Khanate. The major medieval cities of Taraz|Aulie-Ata and Hazrat-e Turkestan|Turkestan were founded along the northern route of the Silk Road|Great Silk Road during this period. Traditional nomadic life on the vast steppe and semi-desert lands was characterized by a constant search for new pasture to support the livestock-based economy. The Kazakhs emerged from a mixture of tribes living in the region in about the 15th century and by the middle of the 16th century had developed a common language, culture, and economy. In the early 1600s, the Kazakh Khanate separated into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes—confederations based on extended family networks. Political disunion, competition among the hordes, and a lack of an internal market weakened the Kazakh Khanate. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. The area was a bone of contention between the Kazak emirs and the Persian Kings for many centuries. In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. Following the October Revolution|Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 a second less intensive phase followed. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan. The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and Great Britain. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organizations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment of the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the Kazakh language and identity. From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of Slavic settlers began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechye|Semirechie. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St. Petersburg. The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the incomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. Although there was a brief period of autonomy during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet Union|Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an Republics of Russia|autonomous republic within Russia and, in 1936, a Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republic. Soviet repression of the traditional elites, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s-1930s, brought about mass hunger and led to unrest. Soviet rule, however, took hold, and a Communism|communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of thousands exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and later became home for hundreds of thousands evacuated from the Second World War battlefields. The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. The period of the Second World War marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasturelands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, sped up the development of the agricultural sector, which to this day remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs took place in Almaty to protest the methods of the communist system. Soviet troops suppressed the unrest, and dozens of demonstrators were jailed or killed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost. Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 abortive coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent Collapse of the Soviet Union|dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet command-economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Kazakh Communist Party and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.

Politics

''Main article: Politics of Kazakhstan'' Kazakhstan is a constitutional republic with a strong presidency. The president is the head of state. The president also is the commander in chief of the armed forces and may veto legislation that has been passed by the Parliament. President Nursultan Nazarbayev, who has been in office since Kazakhstan became independent, won a new 7-year term in the 1999 election that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. The prime minister, who serves at the pleasure of the president, chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. Daniyal Akhmetov|Daniyal K. Akhmetov became the Prime Minister in June 2003. Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament, comprised of the lower house (the Majilis) and upper house (the Senate). Single mandate districts popularly elect 67 seats in the Majilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 39 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 regions, or oblasts, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining seven senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament. Elections to the Majilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government Otan party, headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the Asar party, founded by President Nazarbayev’s daughter, won most of the remaining seats. Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards. In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved. On December 5, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a land-slide victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90 % of the vote. Opposition parties complained of irregularities and possible Electoral fraud|fraud, pointing especially to what they claimed was a hastily-assembled Electronic voting|electronic voting system which they argue was open to abuse. Xinhua News Agency reported that People's Republic of China|Chinese observers, responsible in overseeing 25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&sid=a2ml5vt5j2_M&refer=top_world_news

Kazakh Intelligence Services

Kazakhstan's National Security Committee (KNB) was established June 13 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commandos units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered by many as the most important part of KNB. Its director is Major General Omirtai Bitimov.

Provinces

''Main article: Provinces of Kazakhstan'' Kazakhstan is divided into 14 provinces (oblystar) and the two municipal districts of Almaty and Astana. Each is headed by a Hakim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Hakims are appointed by oblast Hakims. The Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana on June 10, 1998. Kazakhstan is divided into 14 ''oblys'' and 3 cities (''qala'')

: Almaty, Almaty

, Aqmola (Astana), Aqtobe, Astana

, Atyrau, Batys Qazaqstan (Oral), Bayqongyr

, Mangghystau (Aqtau; formerly Shevchenko), Ongtustik Qazaqstan (Shymkent), Pavlodar, Qaraghandy, Qostanay, Qyzylorda, Shyghys Qazaqstan (Oskemen; formerly Ust'-Kamenogorsk), Soltustik Qazaqstan (Petropavl), Zhambyl (Taraz; known as Dzhambul in the Soviet period, but before that as Aulie-Ata) ''note:'' administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses); in 1995 the Governments of Kazakhstan and Russia entered into an agreement whereby Russia would lease for a period of 20 years an area of 6,000 km² enclosing the Baikonur Cosmodrome|Bayqongyr (Baykonur) space launch facilities and the city of Bayqongyr (formerly Leninsk). Just recently, the lease of Bayqongyr facilities was extended through 2050.

Geography

''Main article: Geography of Kazakhstan'' With an area of 2.7 million square kilometres (1.56 million mi²), Kazakhstan is the ninth-largest nation in the world. It is equivalent to the size of Western Europe. Major cities include, Astana (capital since June 1998), Almaty (former capital, once known as Alma-Ata and before 1917 as Verny), Karaganda, Shymkent (Chimkent), Semey (Semipalatinsk) and Hazrat-e Turkestan|Turkestan, once known as Yasi. ''See'' List of cities in Kazakhstan|Cities of Kazakhstan The terrain extends east to west from the Caspian Sea to the Altay Mountains and north to south from the plains of Western_Siberia|Western Siberia to the oasis and desert of Central Asia. Almost one-third of the country—804,500 square kilometres—is taken up the the Kazakh Steppe, the world's largest dry steppe region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of grasslands and sandy regions. The climate is continental_climate|continental with cold winters and hot summers; arid and semi-arid. Border lengths: Russia 6,846 km., Uzbekistan 2,203 km., China 1,533 km., Kyrgyzstan 1,051 km., and Turkmenistan 379 km.

Rivers and lakes include:

Aral Sea

Ili River

Irtysh River

Ishim River

Lake Balkhash

Lake Zaysan

Economy

''Main article: Economy of Kazakhstan'' The Government of Kazakhstan plans to double its Gross domestic product (GDP) by 2008 (compared to 2000) and triple by 2015 (compared to 2003). The GDP growth was stable in last five years, and was higher than 9% (the second fastest growing economy in the world in real terms). The estimation for 2005 is 9.3 % growth in GDP. The GDP growth in 2004 was 9.4%. Kazakhstan's economy grew by 9.2% in 2003, buoyed by high world oil prices. GDP grew 9.5% in 2002; it grew 13.2% in 2001, up from 9.8% in 2000. Kazakhstan's monetary policy has been well managed. Its principal challenges in 2002 were to manage strong foreign currency inflows without sparking inflation. In 2003 inflation did not remain under control, registering at 6.8% instead of forecast level of 5.3%-6.0%. In 2002 inflation was 6.6%, compared to 6.4% in 2001. Because of its strong macroeconomic performance and financial health, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in 2000, 7 years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the U.S. Department of Commerce graduated Kazakhstan to market economy status under U.S. trade law. The change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources. In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the former Soviet Union to receive an investment-grade credit rating from a major international credit rating agency. As of late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion. This amounts to 14% of GDP. There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP observed in past years; the ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in 2000 was 21.7%, in 2001 it was 17.5%, and in 2002 it was 15.4%. The upturn in economic growth, combined with the results of earlier tax and financial sector reforms, dramatically improved government finances from the 1999 budget deficit level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 1.2% of GDP in 2003. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to 22.6% of GDP in 2001, but decreased to 16.2% of GDP in 2003. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new tax code in an effort to consolidate these gains. On November 29, 2003 the Law on Changes to Tax Code was adopted, which reduced tax rates-- value added tax from 16% to 15%, social tax from 21% to 20%, and personal income tax from 30% to 20%. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, 2003 and a customs code on April 5, 2003. Oil and gas is the leading economic sector. Production of oil and gas condensate in Kazakhstan amounted to 51.2 million tons in 2003, which was 8.6% more than in 2002. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13% higher compared to 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003 amounted to 13.9 billion cubic meters, up 22.7% compared to 2002, including natural gas production of 7.3 billion cubic meters, Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometers of gas. Industry analysts believe that planned expansion of oil production, coupled with the development of new fields, will enable the country to produce as much as 3 million barrels (477,000 m³) per day by 2015, lifting Kazakhstan into the ranks of the world's top 10 oil-producing nations. Kazakhstan's 2003 oil exports were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65% of overall exports and 24% of GDP. Major oil and gas fields and their recoverable oil reserves are Tengiz with 7 billion barrels (1.1 km³); Karachaganak with 8 billion barrels (1.3 km³) and 1,350 km³ of natural gas); and Kashagan with 7 to 9 billion barrels (1.1 to 1.4 km³). Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious pension reform program in 1998. As of January 1, 2005 the pension assets were about $4.1 billion. There are 16 saving pension funds in the republic. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, could be privatized as early as 2005. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates the pension funds. The pension funds' growing demand for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt securities market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government bonds, including Government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds. The Kazakhstani banking system is developing rapidly. The banking system's capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The National Bank has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazakhstan, including ABN-AMRO, Citibank, and HSBC.

Agriculture

Agriculture accounted for 13.6% of Kazakhstan's GDP in 2003. Grain (Kazakhstan is the sixth-largest producer in the world) and livestock are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than 846,000 km². The available agricultural land consists of 205,000 km² of arable land and 611,000 km² of pasture and hay land. Chief livestock products are dairy goods, leather, meat, and wool. The country's major crops include wheat, barley, cotton, and rice. Wheat exports, a major source of hard currency, rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002.

Natural resources

Oil, gas, and mineral exports are key to Kazakhstan's economic success and have attracted most of the over $18.4 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993. Kazakhstan has significant deposits of coal, iron, copper, zinc, uranium, and gold.

Foreign relations

Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors and is a member of the United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and North Atlantic Cooperation Council. It also is an active participant in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace program. Kazakhstan is also a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization along with Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan established the Eurasian Economic Community in 2000 to re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a customs union.

Demographics

''Main article: Demographics of Kazakhstan'' The majority of modern Kazakhstanis are currently either ethnic Kazakhs (58%) or Russians (27%), with smaller Ukrainians|Ukrainian, Uzbek, German people|German, Koreans|Korean, Uyghur and other minorities (15%). Main religious groupings are Muslim, Russian Orthodox, Roman Catholic and Ukrainian Orthodox. Kazakhstan is a bilingual country: the Kazakh language|Kazakh language, spoken by 64.4% of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while Russian language|Russian is declared the "official" language, and is used routinely in business. Education is universal and mandatory through the secondary level, and the literacy rate is 98.8%. The 1990s were marked by the emigration of much of the country's Europeans, a process that begun in the 1970s; this was a major factor in giving the autochthonous Kazakhs a majority along with higher Kazakh birthrates and ethnic Kazakh immigration from China, Mongolia and Russia. In the early 21st century, Kazakhstan has become one of the leading nations in international adoptions. The main ethnic groups in Kazakhstan are: Kazakhs (Qazaq) 58%, Russians 27%, Ukrainians 3.0%, German people|Germans 1.5%, Uzbeks 2.9%, Uyghur 1.6%, other 6.0% (1999). Before 1991, one million Germans lived in Kazakhstan.

Kazakhs and Kazakhstanis (terminology)

For many years, Russians often outnumbered the Kazakhs in many parts of the area known today as Kazakhstan. Even now, Russians and people of other ethnic origins play an important role in the economy, government, etc. At the same time, many non-Kazakhs still commonly refer to Kazakhstan as the homeland of the Kazakhs, and consider countries such as Russia or Germany their true "homeland" (interestingly, many Russians and other ethnic groups have been living in the region for several generations). Many non-Kazakhs, however, consider the country their home, and some resent their role as "outsiders" since the fall of the Soviet Union. A term was coined in Russian to describe any citizens of Kazakhstan including non-Kazakhs (казахстанец), which in English is usually rendered "Kazakhstani". In its correct usage, the word "Kazakh" should only refer to people of actual Kazakh descent (including those living in China, Afghanistan, and other Central Asian countries), a term that better grasps the people in the country as a whole, as well as their collective culture and land is "Kazakhstani".

Education

Primary education lasts for four years preceded by one year of pre-school education. Secondary education consists in three main educational phases: primary education (forms 1-4), basic general education (forms 5-9) and senior level education (forms 10-11 or 12) divided into continued general education and professional education. These three levels of education can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g. primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialized schools, magnet schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, linguistic and technical gymnasiums, have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or technical schools, lyceums or colleges and vocational schools. At present, there are universities, academies, and institutes, conservatoires, higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic higher education that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the Bachelor degree; specialized higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the Master's Degree. Postgraduate education leads to the Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) and the Doctor of Sciences. With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.

Culture

''Main article: Culture of Kazakhstan''

Abai Kunanbaev

Islam in Kazakhstan

Khoja Ahmad Yasavi

Music of Kazakhstan

Miscellaneous topics

Communications in Kazakhstan

Foreign relations of Kazakhstan

Kipchaks

List of Kazakh historical figures

Media in Kazakhstan

Military of Kazakhstan

Organization of the Scout Movement of Kazakhstan

Transportation in Kazakhstan

Postage stamps and postal history of Kazakhstan

Environmental issues

In part because of the country's enormous semi-arid steppe, the Soviet government used Kazakhstan as its nuclear testing site, and this, along with near-absent pollution controls, has contributed to an alarmingly high rate of disease in many rural areas. Kazakhstan has identified at least two major ecological disasters within its borders-- the shrinking of the Aral Sea and radioactive contamination at the Semipalatinsk nuclear testing facility (in fact a large zone south of Koursatov) and along the Chinese border. The Central Asian Regional Environmental Center is located in Kazakhstan, which fosters regional cooperation on environmental issues.

Cosmodrome

Kazakhstan possesses the Soviet equivalent to the United States' Cape Canaveral, where the Soviet Union launched its version of the space shuttle and the well-known space station Mir. Russia currently leases approximately 6,000 km² of territory enclosing the Baikonur Cosmodrome space launch site in south central Kazakhstan.

Sport

Cycling

Talented cycling|cyclist Alexander Vinokourov represents Kazakhstan in his cycling career for the German T-mobile team. Vinokourov has an impressive cycling record finishing third overall in the 2003 Tour de France. Vinokourov finished 5th in the 2005 Tour de France, while two other young Kazakhstanis, Kashechkin and Iglinskiy, finished 19th and 37th, respectively. Professional cyclist Andrei Kivilev died after a crash in the 2003 edition of the Paris-Nice race.

Rhythmic gymnastics

Aliya Yussupova ended up 4th in Summer Olympic Games in 2004 Summer Olympics|Athens. She has been among medal winners in several previous tournaments. Currently, she is one of the top rhythmic gymnasts in the world.

Boxing

Kazakh boxers are generally well known in the world. In last 3 Olympic games their performance was assesed as one of the best and they had more medals than any countries in the world except Cuba and Russia (in all three games). In 1996 and 2004 two Kazakh boxers (Vasiliy Jirov-1996 and Bakhtiyar ARTAYEV -2004) were recognised as the best boxers for their techniques with the Val Barker trophy, awarded to the best boxer of the tournament. Kazakh boxing|boxers are renowned for their incredible performance in 2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney, 2000. Two boxers, Bekzat Sattarkhanov and Yermakhan Ibraimov, earned gold medals. Another two boxers, Bulat Jumadilov and Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov, earned silver medals.

Trivia

The old name of the city, Alma-Ata means 'Grandfather of Apples', derived from the wild apples that grow naturally in the area. Apples were first cultivated in this area, and Kazakhstan's apple stock is the most biologically diverse in the world. Kazakhstan appears in the films ''Air Force One (film)|Air Force One'' (with Harrison Ford), ''The World Is Not Enough'' (James Bond), and ''Rollerball (2002 film)|Rollerball'' (with Jean Reno). The ice skating rink 'Medeo' that lies up in the mountains about 45 minutes outside of the city is the largest outdoor rink in the world. Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian country that exports oil to China.

See also

Elections in Kazakhstan

Human rights in Kazakhstan

Kazakh Steppe

Borat, a fictional Kazakh journalist

References

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5487.htm

External links

http://www.akorda.kz/page.php?lang=2

http://www.kz/

http://www.suhbat.com/

http://www.government.kz/en/default.asp

http://www.nationalbank.kz/?switch=eng

http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/voyageurs/etrangers/avis/conseils/images/cartes/KAZAKHSTAN/kazakhstan.gif